The Enlightenment: The Rise of New Governments

Kings, emperors, and czars have ruled over Europe for hundreds of years, and the general public accepted them as their rulers because they believed they were placed in this hierarchical position of supremacy by a divine deity. This hierarchical structure of society was never really questioned because most people simply could not conceive of another form of government or society; however, as Enlightenment thinkers questioned everything around them, they turned their attention to the political sphere and began to question the long-standing tradition of a monarchy. English political thinker John Locke believed a government should be subject to the people, not the people as subjects to the government, as under a monarchy. Locke suggested the idea that the governments sole purpose is to secure the rights of the governed- the protection of the life, liberty, and property of all- and if a government begins to abuse those rights or ceases to defend them effectively, the governed have a moral right to overthrow that government and replace it with one that does the job properly. If this idea sounds familiar it is because this is the exact same idea propounded in the American Declaration of Independence. The type of government suggested by Locke involves a type of social contract between the government and the governed in which the governed agree to give up a certain amount of individual freedom in exchange for the protection of their individual rights. One of the key concepts to arise from this time period is the idea of inalienable rights. These are certain rights each individual has that cannot be taken away. Intellectuals and revolutionaries sought a new form of government that would constitutionalize the rights of citizens and deprive the State of any right to set those human liberties aside. The culmination of these ideas is ultimately expressed in the Constitution of the United States of America.

The Enlightenment: The Decline of the Church

German philosopher Immanuel Kant (1724 - 1804) declared the Enlightenment creed in 1784: Sapere aude! "Dare to Know!" The Enlightenment was a period of intense intellectual fervor and advancement that we can date from 1650 to 1800. During this period, philosophers, intellectuals, scientists, and laymen began to question and challenge the authority of the Church and State in a frenzied pursuit of knowledge and understanding of the world. The roots of the Enlightenment begin with the Scientific Revolution of the 16th and 17th centuries, when scientists such as Copernicus, Galileo, and Newton made discoveries that shook the very foundation of Church dogma, creating a bitter, antagonistic relationship between religion and science that continues to this day. The Age of Exploration introduced Europeans to new cultures, new religions, and new ideas that opened the doors to innovative and novel ways of thinking. Also, the explorers brought back with them new plants and animals that added fuel to the scientific curiosity sweeping across Europe. These two factors led to the declining influence of the Church and to the rise of either religious reform or the abandonment of religion altogether. The Enlightenment saw the rise of Deism as an alternative to organized religions, differing from the Abrahamic religions (Christianity, Judaism, Islam) in that it viewed God as a sort of "cosmic watchmaker" who created the universe and set it in autonomous motion and never again tampered with it. They fulminated against the dogma and doctrines of organized religion and believed god's revelation to mankind existed in man's communion with nature, not through the hearsay of prophets and the Bible. Contrary to popular belief, the founding fathers of the United States were Deists, not Christians.

The Crucible, Essay Topic

Arthur Miller's play The Crucible is an allegory set in the theocratic Puritan settlement of Salem, Massachusetts in 1692. The author uses actual historic events as a backdrop for his condemnation of the paranoia and hysteria over the threat of Communism that consumed the United States during the Cold War. The town of Salem was consumed by its own fear of witchcraft, which led to 150 people arrested and imprisoned, 29 people convicted of the capital felony of witchcraft, and 19 executed by hanging. Five more people died in prison while they awaited trial. Although the play has been slightly altered for literary and symbolic purposes, we can use the characters, their actions and motives, and the themes of the play to gain a better understanding of the history, and we can apply this knowledge to understand our modern world and contemporary issues. Choose one of the following three topics to write an essay:
I. Discuss three instances in which a character's concern for Reputation affects the action and events of the play.
II. Discuss three characters who use the hysteria of the witch hunt to express or release repressed feelings of anger, lust, guilt, jealousy, or frustration.
III. Play the part of Devil's advocate and defend three of the following characters: Abigail, Tom, Ann, Parris, Mary, Danforth, and John (regarding his affair and sin). Provide extenuating circumstances that may soften the readers' judgment of them.
This is a five-paragraph essay, size 11 font, 4-5 pages. You must provide at least 2 quotations for each body paragraph. The introduction of the essay is very important. You must demonstrate a solid understanding of Puritanism in order to establish yourself as someone who is qualified to write about the subject.