20th Century: An Age of Uncertainty and Chaos

In the 20th century, more than in any other period in its history, art has been a mirror of science. A scientific counterrevolution exploded certainties inherited from the 17th and 18th centuries. Albert Einstein's special theory of relativity directly questioned our long standing belief in the certainty and reliability of Time as a constant in the universe, something by which we could measure ourselves and our progress as a species. Henry Bergson proposed the idea of time being completely subjective, or something that is not a series of successive moments but a construct that arises in our own mind and which we project onto events. Charles Darwin's theory of evolution reaches mainstream thinking and gains credibility among scholars and laymen. The increasing discovery of dinosaur fossils fuels the public imagination of a lost past in earth's history, one that was not mentioned in ancient scriptures and historical texts. The discovery of radium and radioactive decay leads to very accurate methods of dating organic material, leading to the accurate discovery of the age of the earth being 4.5 billion years old. Niels Bohr and others explore the world of quantum physics and reveal a world of uncertainty and chaos as it is revealed sub-atomic particles, the building blocks of the universe, behave in inexplicable and chaotic ways. New and increasingly more powerful telescopes allow us to view deeper into the universe, leading scientists to learn more about our infinitesimal position in an infinite and, as Edwin Hubble discovered, an expanding universe. The age of the universe is calculated to be 15 billion years old. Our notion of the earth as existing for 6,000 years is shattered, and people begin to realize the earth has had a very long past, one that excludes humanity and minimizes our significance in the universe. We realize our brief history on the planet is insignificant and we, like many other species before us, are a small link in an infinite chain of events, and we, too, will be a mere historical reference of a long-forgotten past. New ideas had subverted or exploded the certainties of the past, and the universe seems chaotic and bewildering. And, oh yeah, we cannot forget about the unspeakable horrors and destruction of World War I and II.

Realism and Naturalism

In the later half of the 19th century, writers were interested in representing life as it truly is, or as William Dean Howells stated, realism is "nothing more and nothing less than the truthful treatment of material." Beginning with the "local color" movement, writers attempted to accurately observe human behavior and experience and portray life in writing; however, local color did not satisfy many emerging writers because of the sentimentality, humor, or moralistic qualities of the local color stories. In other words, local color was not keepin' it real enough for the writers of the Realism movement. Life is not always fair, good things happen to bad people, bad things happen to good people, and not all characters and subject matter are "literary" but that does not mean the writer should neglect or avoid addressing them. Realism sought to represent these aspects of life realistically and without censure. Naturalism grew out of Realism, but naturalist writers believed realistic writers to fall short of the ultimate goal of writing; realism was little more than a call to accurate observation, and it did not penetrate the surface of life- or of human character - to see the principles operating within. Highly influenced by the scientific explorations of the time, naturalist writers approached human character and society in the same spirit of scientific investigation the chemist and physicist bring to their study of the physical world. For these writers, the laws of individual and social development are as fixed as those of science. Determinism governs everything, and free-will is an illusion. The two principle forces in this determinism are heredity and environment. Human fate is controlled by these two forces and humans must exist in a universe that is completely indifferent to struggle and attachment.

Walt Whitman's Rebel "Yawp"

Walt Whitman is the bridge connecting the romantic idealism of the early 19th century and the realism and changed realities of the post-war period. He greatly impacted American literature with the publication of Leaves of Grass in 1855, and he is often referred to as the father of modern poetry. He believed poetry should embrace every aspect of life, and in his poems he wrote without apology on subjects that had previously been excluded as ugly or shameful. He embodied the modern democratic man who would speak of all things without hindrance. His poetry celebrates the "divine condition" of being alive with an intensity that unites all forms of life without discrimination. He was the voice of all people and all things.

Emily Dickinson's "Letter to the World"

Emily Dickinson describes her standards for judging poetry in the following quotation: "If I read a book and it makes my whole body so cold no fire can ever warm me, I know that is poetry. If I feel physically as if the top of my head were taken off, I know that is poetry. These are the only ways I know it. Is there any way?" Her intense poems celebrate nature, describe love, and personify death. She addresses the great mystery of the universe and of life, and she wrote these passionate verses from the solitary viewpoint of her house and garden. She, herself, is a mystery because she lived a life of solitude and self-exile, closed off from the world and from interaction with other people. It is as if she lived outside of life in order to observe her surroundings and have a unique, unclouded view of life she might not have otherwise had. What emotions does her poetry produce in you? Do you find her poetry to be dark and moody, or light and optimistic? Does knowledge of her personal life elucidate the ideas in her poetry? Can we see evidence of Romanticism or Transcendentalism, or perhaps Puritanism and Anti-Transcendentalism in her poetry?

Romanticism to Realism

By 1865, there was a general change in our perception of human potential versus experience; writers and thinkers concerned themselves less with aspirations and more with actual existence in America. The New England Renaissance was waning, and the ideas of Romanticism and Transcendentalism were diminishing in influence. Romantic writers had examined human nature apart from society, isolated and absorbed by the imagination and inner reflection, concerned with ultimate questions about the universe. After the conclusion of the American War between the States in 1865, a age that is referred to as the Post-War Period, writers tended to treat everyday human problems in complex social settings. These writers were not concerned with metaphysical questions; they focused their attention and interest in human experiences. This movement is known as Realism.

Anti-Transcendentalism

Not everyone was enamoured of the Transcendental philosophy expounded by Emerson and Thoreau. To some of their contemporaries, Emerson and Thoreau were out of touch with reality and failed to account for human weaknesses, such as evil, greed, and selfishness. We can classify this wave of thinking as Anti-Transcendentalist because it directly opposed Transcendentalism. The most notable names are Nathaniel Hawthorne, author of The Scarlet Letter and "The Minister's Black Veil," and Herman Melville, author of Moby Dick. Unlike their more optimistic contemporaries, Hawthorne and Melville felt human nature to be contradictory, full of good and evil. They also believed rules to be a necessity to control the vices and impulses of our dissolute human society. The reader can discern elements of Puritanism because many of their characters seem to have in innate "sinful" nature, much like original sin, that affects their decisions and leads them astray; therefore, it would be unwise to suggest to the world to follow our instincts and intuition because our natural inclination is to follow selfish or evil urges and desires. What elements of Anti-Transcendentalism can you identify in the writing of Hawthorne and Melville? How do the characters of Hester Prynne, Dimmesdale, Chillingworth, Reverend Hooper, or Captain Ahab represent these ideas?

Emerson's Man-Thinker, The American Scholar

In Ralph Waldo Emerson's speech, The American Scholar, he use the term "man-thinking" to denote an independent thinker, or one who is free of constraining fetters of conformity and dogmatic beliefs. The mind of the independent thinker is engaged by the spectacles of nature and ponders his connection to "the inexplicable continuity of this web of God." The scholar sees his connection to nature and his soul's reflection therein; thus, to study and contemplate nature is to study and contemplate one's soul. The scholar also finds inspiration in books and knowledge; however, the true man-thinker uses this rich source of information to create ideas relevant and reflective of his day. He does not deify past thinkers nor apotheosize their works. Great minds think against themselves and accepted ideas in an attempt to arrive at their own personal truth; they are not afraid of contradiction and change.
One of interesting comments Emerson makes about the universe is it is "without center, without circumference." (If you saw the movie "I (heart) Huckabees" this should sound familiar.) The size and scope of the universe is beyond our imagination and understanding. What thoughts do you have about the universe? What thoughts does the universe inspire you to think? Think for yourself and be a non-conformist.